![]() 1509–47) severs his own ties with the Catholic Church. In 1534, seventeen years after Luther initiates the Reformation in Germany, Henry VIII (r. The conversion of Scotland to Protestantism, led by John Knox (1513–1572), repairs the rift. Scotland, facing similar civil unrest in the fifteenth century, forges an alliance with France through the marriage of James V to Marie of Guise (1515–1560) and earns the enmity of England. Irish civil wars continue to rage, however, and culminate at the turn of the seventeenth century. Tensions between England and Wales are relieved by the Act of Union in 1536, and Tudor rulers tighten their control in Ireland, particularly after the religious upheaval at mid-century. The sixteenth century witnesses both a dramatic shift of power in the hands of the increasingly autocratic English monarch, and the emergence of England as a major presence in international commerce. By the end of the fifteenth century, civil war between the Yorkists and Lancastrians seriously undermines the power of the monarchy and leaves the nobility fractured and vulnerable to the prevailing Tudor family. ![]() During the reign of his son Henry VI (1422–61 1470–71), however, the English are expelled from France with the help of Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl, and political turmoil erupts at home when the king’s frequent illnesses place England in the hands of a Protector, Richard, duke of York. His endeavors are temporarily successful, gaining large territories in France and securing his claim to the French throne. 1413–22) renews the war with France that has continued, with interruptions, for nearly a century. 1399–1413), England’s first Lancastrian king, Great Britain and Ireland are rife with internal tensions, including Welsh revolt, a series of baronial rebellions led by the Percy family of Northumberland, and ongoing warfare among the Anglo-Irish nobility. At the start of the period, concurrent with the accession of Henry IV (r.
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